Though
Safflower flowers find mention in of
Ayurveda and in European and Japanese pharmacopoeias, the
interest in this crop has been rekindled in the last few years,
says
Dr Nandini Nimbkar
Safflower,
Carthamus tinctorius L. is a thistle-like herb belonging to the
family Asteraceae or Compositae. It is one of humanity’s oldest
crops cultivated in India mainly for oil from the seeds and a reddish
dye from the flowers. Nonetheless, it has mainly remained a minor
crop grown on small plots for the growers’ personal use. Though,
safflower flowers have been used in preparations of ayurvedic medicines
in India and also merit mention in European and Japanese pharmacopoeias,
the interest in this crop has been rekindled in the last few years
as the medicinal use of these flowers in China has become more widely
known. China has a significant area under safflower plantation,
but it is grown almost exclusively for its flowers, which are harvested
for use in traditional medicines, and the production is not included
in international crop estimate reports. Safflower flowers are used
in China for the treatment of many illnesses as well as in ‘tonic
tea’.
Production
in India
India
is the largest producer of safflower (2.0 lakh tonnes) in the world
with highest acreage (4.3 lakh hectares) but with an average productivity
of only 465 kg/ha. Poor crop management under input-starved conditions
is the most important reason for such low per hectare yields. It
is mainly grown in Maharashtra, Karnataka and parts of Andhra Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, etc. Maharashtra and Karnataka are
the two most important safflower growing states accounting for 72
and 23 per cent of area and 63 and 35 per cent of production, respectively.
Safflower
is now mainly grown in India for its much-valued edible oil. Safflower
produces oil rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic acid
78 per cent), which play an important role in reducing blood cholesterol
level and is considered as a healthy cooking medium. Safflower oil
is suitable where high level of stability at low temperature is
required as in frozen desserts. It is also used in infant foods
and liquid nutrition formulations.
The
safflower crop is usually grown in the rabi or winter season from
October/November to March/April, generally as an intercrop with
cereals such as wheat and sorghum. It is one of the most important
crops for marginal farmers. Traditionally it is grown as a rain-fed
crop on residual soil moisture. However, research carried out at
the Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute (NARI) at Phaltan during
the 1960s showed that safflower has a potential to produce as much
as 4.0 tonnes/ha seed yield under irrigated conditions. NARI became
the first centre for irrigated safflower research under the All
India Co-ordinated Research Project on Oilseeds in 1975. It was
shown that just one or two irrigations given to safflower crop at
the critical growth stages could boost its seed yield by as much
as 50 per cent.
NARI
was also a pioneer in starting safflower hybrid development in India.
The first non-spiny hybrid in India NARI-NH-1 (PH-6) was developed
at NARI and released in 2001. Efforts to popularise safflower flowers
as herbal tea in India were also pioneered at NARI. Their use for
medicinal purposes is steadily increasing and this is expected to
help farmers get increased remuneration from their crop.
Conditions
for Cultivation
Although
safflower has gained the reputation of being a drought-resistant
crop, it is basically true only as far as its dependence on rainfall
is concerned. With its deep taproot capable of penetrating to a
depth of 2-3 metre, it can draw moisture from deep in the subsoil
from levels not available to a majority of crops. Although grown
without irrigation over the major portion of its range, as a large-scale
commercial crop highest yields are obtained only under some type
of irrigation. The crop may use considerable amounts of soil moisture,
but it cannot survive standing water for even a few hours in warm
weather.
The
“allergy” which safflower has to “wet feet” is partly due to the
rapid spread of soil borne pathogens such as Fusarium, but also
because anaerobic conditions cause plant death very quickly. Excess
rainfall, especially after flowering begins, contributes to a vast
array of leaf and capitulum’s diseases, which reduce yields and
can cause a substantial crop loss. Well-drained, deep, fertile,
sandy loam soils support maximum safflower yields. In heavy clay
soils, crusting may reduce emergence of seedlings and higher than
normal seed rates may be needed.
The
safflower plant yields several products. Some of the important ones
are:
Safflower
seed oil: Around the world, safflower is mainly grown
for its edible oil, which can be used, for cooking and in preparation
of mayonnaise, salad oil and margarine. Safflower oil has the highest
ratio of polyunsaturated/saturated fatty acids of any oil available.
It has been observed on administration to patients with ‘Hypercholesterolemia’,
the unsaturated fatty acids of safflower lower the serum cholesterol
level. This effect is variable and not discernible in patients with
normal or near normal cholesterol levels, nor does it occur unless
the total fatty acid intake is reduced. Though clinical value of
safflower oil is still considered to be incompletely proven, there
is a considerable health food market for safflower oil, especially
in North America, Germany and Japan.
Oil
levels in the seed ranging from 10 to 50 per cent have been reported
from around the world for safflower.
The commercialisation of safflower in the 1950s was driven, in part,
by the paint and varnish industry. The oil’s properties contribute
to unsurpassed quality in paints, alkyd resins and coatings. However,
less costly petroleum products and a shift to water-based paints
have limited their use.
Safflower
dye: Until this century, when cheaper aniline dyes became
available, safflower was mainly grown for dye. The water-soluble
yellow dye, carthamidin, and a water-insoluble red dye, carthamin,
which is readily soluble in alkali, can be obtained from safflower
florets. Dye manufacture has virtually ceased in Asia, but dye is
still prepared on a small-scale for traditional and religious occasions.
Carthamin is found in the florets to the extent of 0.3-0.6 per cent
and imparts a bright red colour to cotton and silk fabric. In order
to get a better colouring effect from carthamin, the yellow colour
first has to be separated from it. For extracting the dye, fully-grown
flower heads are collected every second or third day before they
fade. They are then dried in the shade. Florets can be collected,
after the crop ripens, so that dye and oilseed can be obtained from
the same crop. Colouring 1 kg of cotton yarn crimson requires 1
kg of dye, rose pink requires 500 gm, and light pink, 250 gm. There
is currently in many countries a reaction against the use of chemicals
for colouring of yarn, with an increased use of naturally coloured
cotton. This has also resulted in a small revival for safflower
dyes.
| Table
1 : Performance of released safflower varieties and hybrids
developed at NARI in comparison with the checks |
| Variety/
hybrid |
Seed
yield (kg/ha) |
per
cent increase over check |
Oil
yield (kg/ha) |
per cent increase over check |
Flower
yield (kg/ha) |
per
cent increase over check |
| Nira
(NRS-209) |
1,576 |
17.19
(Bhima) |
512 |
26.93 |
– |
– |
| NARI-6 |
1,024 |
16.8
(JSI-7) |
304 |
25.97
(JSI-7) |
125 |
20
(JSI-7) |
| NARI-NH-1
(PH-6) |
1,936 |
11.36
(A-1) |
628 |
30.74
(A-1) |
192 |
118.18
(JSI-7) |
Safflower cake: The meal left after oil extraction from
the decorticated seed is used for animal feed, while that obtained
from un-decorticated seeds is used for manure. The cake contains
about 7.9 per cent nitrogen, 1.9 per cent potash and 2.2 per cent
phosphoric acid and its application as manure is supposed to greatly
improve the physical properties of heavy soils. Although cattle
apparently find safflower cake palatable, its bitter taste maker
it unacceptable to humans. Protein isolates prepared from debittered
meal can be used to fortify bread, pasta and nutritional drinks.
Only lysine is limiting, while methionine and isoleucine are borderline.
Safflower
vegetable and fodder: The tender leaves, shoots and
thinnings of safflower are valued as pot-herb and salad. They are
high in vitamin A, iron, phosphorus and calcium. Bundles of young
seedlings are commonly sold as a green vegetable in markets in India
and some neighbouring countries.
Safflower
can be grazed or stored as hay or silage. The forage is palatable
and its feed value and yields are similar to or better than those
for oats or alfalfa. Tests have shown that fairly good seed production
from a ratoon crop is possible by cutting at about 3-4 cm above
ground at 30-45 days after planting in crops planted before the
end of September.
Safflower
food colour: Addition of safflower florets to food is
a widespread and ancient tradition. Health concerns regarding synthetic
food colourants has increased interest in safflower-derived food
colouring in recent times. Carthamin is the only chalkone-type pigment
suggested for colouring foods. It finds use in colouring cakes,
biscuits, butter, ice cream, rice, soup, sauces, bread and pickles,
yellow to bright orange. Both safflower yellow and carthamin can
be used as non-toxic food colourants. True saffron, which is probably
the world’s costliest spice, is quite commonly substituted or adulterated
with safflower florets due to the similarity in their appearance.
| Table
2 : Characteristics of released safflower varieties and hybrids
developed at NARI in comparison with the checks |
Sr.
No.
|
Variety
/ hybrid |
Year
of release |
Average
seed yield (kg/ha) |
Oil
content (per cent) |
Reaction
to diseases and pests |
Days
to maturity |
| 1 |
Nira
(NRS-209) |
1986 |
1,576 |
31.5 |
– |
130 |
| 2 |
NARI-6 |
2000 |
1,024 |
35 |
Tolerant to alternaria and cercospora |
137 |
| 3 |
NARI-NH-1
(PH-6) |
2001 |
1,936 |
35 |
Moderately resistant to cercospora and wilt and tolerant to
alternaria and aphids |
140 |
| 4 |
A-1
(National check) |
1969 |
1,716 |
30 |
– |
128 |
| 5 |
Bhima
(Local check) |
1982 |
1,305 |
30 |
– |
135 |
| 6 |
JSI-7 (Non-spiny check) |
1990 |
852 |
30 |
– |
175-180 |
Safflower
medicine: In India flowers of safflower are regarded
as stimulant, sedative and as a promoter of menstrual discharge.
In large doses, they are laxative. In China, safflower is grown
almost exclusively for its flowers, which are used in treatment
of many illnesses as well as in ‘tonic tea’. The main active ingredient
in safflower medicines is safflower yellow, which is water-soluble,
but alcohol extracts are used in some preparations. Many clinical
and laboratory studies support the use of safflower medicines for
menstrual problems, cardiovascular disease and pain and swelling
associated with trauma. Safflower yellow is present in the dried
florets to the extent of 26-36 per cent.
Research
on safflower at the Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute (NARI)
commenced in mid-1960s even before the institute was officially
registered in 1968. The safflower research and development at NARI
during last 35 years has been devoted to developing suitable agro-production
technologies and varieties and hybrids for limited irrigation situations.
Development
of Varieties
The
major emphasis of the variety improvement programme at NARI is on
developing varieties with enhanced oil and seed yield and better
tolerance to pests and diseases in addition to responsiveness to
limited irrigation. The following cultivars developed at NARI have
been released by the government for commercial cultivation (Tables
1 and 2).
Nira
(NRS-209): Nira was released for cultivation under protective irrigation
in the state of Maharashtra during 1986. It is a spiny cultivar
and gives about 17 per cent higher seed yield than the safflower
cultivar Bhima, which is the most widely cultivated safflower variety
in the state. It gives seed yield of 15 to 18 q/ha under irrigation
and 12 to 15 q/ha under rain-fed conditions. It contains 30-33 per
cent oil in its seeds. Due to its earliness, it escapes pest infestation
and hence is considered to be moderately tolerant to different pests.
| The
major emphasis of the variety improvement programme at NARI
is on developing varieties with enhanced oil and seed yield
and better tolerance to pests and diseases |
NARI-6:
This is a non-spiny cultivar released in 2,000 for cultivation in
rain-fed areas of the country (Fig. 1). NARI-6 on an average produces
a seed yield of 10 to 11 q/ha under rain-fed conditions. It contains
35 per cent oil in its seeds. It also yields 1 to 1.5 q flowers/ha.
It possesses greater drought tolerance than the other cultivars,
which are presently cultivated.
Hybrid
Development
NARI
pioneered hybrid development in safflower in India during 1983-84.
The preliminary evaluation of these hybrids based on genetic male
sterility showed them to give 19 per cent higher seed yield than
the national check A-1 in the multi-location trials of All India
Co-ordinated Research Project on oilseeds. However, these hybrids
could not be commercialised due to the undesirable characteristics
of the genetic male sterile lines available. This led to the thorough
search of the available germ plasm at NARI and a programme for development
of several male sterile (MS) lines. These MS lines are high-yielding,
uniform and possess desirable traits. They are being exploited for
hybrid development at NARI.
| Table
3 : Analysis of safflower flowers of NARI-NH-1 |
| Sr.
No. |
Parametre |
Value |
| 1 |
Protein,
per cent by wt. |
10.4 |
| 2 |
Total
sugars, per cent by wt. |
11.8 |
| 3 |
Zinc,
(mg per cent) |
2.6 |
| 4 |
Sodium,
(mg per cent) |
17.0 |
| 5 |
Potassium,
(mg per cent) |
3,264.0 |
| 6 |
Iron,
(mg per cent) |
42.5 |
| 7 |
Calcium,
(mg per cent) |
708.0 |
| 8 |
Magnesium,
(mg per cent) |
142.0 |
| 9 |
Copper,
(mg per cent) |
1.1 |
| 10 |
Cadmium,
(mg/kg) |
0.33 |
| 11 |
Manganese,
(mg per cent) |
4.7 |
| 12 |
Lead, (mg/kg) |
1.84 |
| 13 |
Arsenic,
(mg/kg) |
Nil |
In
2001 for the first time a non-spiny hybrid NARI-NH-1 (PH-6) was
released for cultivation in all the safflower growing regions of
the country. It gives a seed yield of 18 to 20 q/ha under irrigation,
has 35 per cent oil in its seeds and produces nearly 2 q flowers/ha
(Tables 1 and 2).
Identification
and release of the non-spiny variety and hybrid in safflower is
expected to be a boon to farmers due to the extra income they are
expected to give the farmers from the flowers. Due to their non-spiny
nature it is easy to harvest and thresh as also pick flowers from
them. This will not only increase their popularity among traditional
farmers who had discontinued safflower cultivation due to reluctance
of labourers to carry out any operations in it due to its spiny
nature, but will also increase the spread of safflower in non-traditional
areas.
The
success of hybrids of any crop depends upon the simplicity and cost
effectiveness of hybrid seed production. Thus at NARI considerable
efforts have been spent on perfecting the technology of hybrid seed
production in safflower.
However,
there are some inherent problems associated with the seed production
in genetic male sterility system, one of them being its labour-intensive
nature. Ultimately only the cytoplasmic male sterility-based system
can provide the most feasible way of hybrid seed production especially
in spiny hybrids of safflower. Therefore, efforts are underway at
NARI to develop cytoplasmic male sterility in safflower, and to
identify suitable maintainer and restorer genotypes for producing
highly productive hybrids.
Battery-Operated
Flower Collector
The
manual collection of safflower flowers from spiny varieties is not
very cost-effective due to the presence of spines on the capitulum.
Thus, a knapsack-type lightweight battery-powered flower collector
has been developed to enable the collection of dried flowers from
spiny safflower plants. The battery of this collector can be charged,
using a solar photovoltaic module.
Popularisation
of Safflower
To
commercialise safflower flowers in India, efforts have been initiated
to popularise them as an herbal health tea for curing several chronic
diseases. Regular users of this tea have reported its usefulness
in alleviating diseases like hypertension, spondylosis, angina,
arthritis, constipation, menstrual disorders and hypercholesterolemia.
Analysis of flowers for nutritional qualities was conducted recently
at the Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI) at
Mysore and the results of this investigation are given in Table
3. They were found to contain substantial quantities of amino-acids
and minerals such as potassium, calcium, magnesium and iron.
Package
of Practices
In
general, highest seed yields could be obtained from safflower when
- Safflower
was planted in the first week of October.
- Plant
population of about 1,00,000/hectare was maintained.
- Fertiliser
containing 60 kg/ha nitrogen in split dose (30 kg at the time
of planting and 30 kg after 1 month of planting) and 30kg/ha phosphorus
was applied to the crop.
- Irrigating
twice – first at elongation (35 days after sowing) and second
at flowering stage (75 days after sowing) were applied, in addition
to a pre-sowing irrigation.
- Crop
was protected against diseases such as alternaria leaf spot and
wilt and insects such as aphids and heliothis.
Seeds
of spiny variety Nira, non-spiny variety NARI-6 and non-spiny hybrid
NARI-NH-1 are available at NARI. NARI is also ready to transfer
the technology of seed production to any interested parties.
The
author Dr. N. Nimbkar has an M.S. and Ph.D. in agronomy from University
of Florida, Gainesville, USA and is the President, Nimbkar Agricultural
Research Institute, Phaltan.
